An Essay by Renee D Mattila

April 6, 2005

Between cultures and continents there are varying degrees of gender stratification. Some cultures rely on nature or religion to justify the status of women in their society. The Holy Bible is an important religious text that is used to justify perceived differences between men and women. An examination of women’s status in the Holy Bible can be divided into three areas of study: The Old Testament, the Gospels of Jesus, and the New Testament Epistles. In the Old Testament women are represented as inferior to men and are considered the property of men. With the coming of Jesus Christ a revolutionary new message was preached. Women and men are represented as equals before God and in the early Church. After the death of Christ new doctrine gradually reverted the role of women to the way it was before the time of Jesus. Both the Old Testament and the New Testament appeal to the authority of God and his messengers to support their constructed gender roles. In both the Old and the New Testament the same God is used to justify different views on women. Although gender characteristics are often presented as being natural and integrally connected to sex, the changing status of women throughout the Holy Bible shows that people and not God construct gender.

The Old Testament contains many passages that dictate the status of women. The very first book, Genesis, establishes women as inferior to men in creation and in social position. As a creation story the words of Genesis are sacred and are attributed directly to God. Although the first chapter of Genesis describes God as creating both the male and female at the same time, suggesting equality between the two, the second chapter says that man was made first and that woman was made from a part of man to be his helper. The term helper may be seen as suggesting either an equal or an inferior status for Eve. Her inferiority is firmly established in Genesis 3:16 when God discovers that she has eaten from the tree of knowledge. “Unto the woman He said, I will greatly multiply thy sorrow and thy conception; in sorrow thou shalt bring forth children; and thy desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall rule over thee” (KJV, Genesis 3:16). The word rule used in Genesis 3:16 comes from the Hebrew ma^shal ( ? ? ? ? ), which can mean to rule, to have, reign and to have power (Strong’s). Different translations of the bible translate the word differently but the meaning remains similar. For instance, the Living Bible translates the word as "master" and the Modern Language Bible translates it as "dominate". This single word, “rule”, powerfully communicates Eve’s position beneath Adam. Because Eve committed a transgression against God she is punished by being made totally subservient to Adam’s will. Eve is transformed from Adam’s helper into Adam’s slave or property. This curse will be passed down to all the daughters of Eve. All these women will be inferior at birth and will inherit Eve’s subservient role.

The book of Genesis relies on the authority of Moses as the prophet of God. Through the stories Moses tells in the book of Genesis women’s status as the property of men is clearly sanctioned by God’s will. The story of Sodom exemplifies the inferior position of women as property. When the men of the city of Sodom wish to rape Lot’s visitors, Lot offers his virgin daughters as a substitute. “ Behold now, I have two daughters which have not known man; let me, pray you, bring them out unto you, and do ye to them as is good in your eyes: only unto these men do nothing; for therefore came they under the shadow of my roof” (Genesis 19:8). Lot is willing to give up his daughters as easily as he may give up a goat or a cloak or any other possession. He willingly offers them to a vicious crowd that is intent on committing rape. Young unmarried women are the property of their father until they become the property of a husband. The unknown men have a higher status than Lot’s own daughters do. Even after Lot’s deplorable actions Lot is still viewed as a righteous man. If his status has changed at all it is that the Angels now consider him to be more honorable than before. This disregard for women’s status as people continues throughout the Old Testament. Other women who are treated as property in the book of Genesis include Abraham’s servant Hagar, who he uses and discards as he wills, and his other wives and concubines who he sends away before his death. Men like Abraham and Lot are considered righteous men for their obedience to God and their control of their women. Through these examples of patriarchs and their women the book of Genesis fortifies the belief that women are created as inferior to men and because of their part in original sin must subordinate themselves to all men and become the property of men. This lays the groundwork for other scripture in the Old Testament.

The book of Leviticus shows that women are physically inferior because of their natural bodily functions, which make them unclean in the eyes of God. The book of Leviticus is also attributed to Moses and the commands contained in it are the commands of God. The Levites are God’s priests and are responsible for upholding the laws of cleanliness. They are given authority from God to judge cleanliness and perform rituals designed for purification. Generally, the book of Leviticus outlines rules about ceremonially clean and unclean things. Some of these rules apply to food or clothing while others apply to such things as the treatment of mildew. Included in these rules of cleanliness are strict regulations for women who have given birth or who are menstruating; both of these things make women ceremonially unclean. In chapter fifteen of Leviticus it says that a woman who is menstruating is unclean for seven days and that any person or thing she touches also becomes unclean. In chapter twenty of Leviticus it goes on to say that a man and woman who engage in sexual relations during the time of the woman’s menstrual flow, should be “cut off from their people” (Leviticus 20:18). These statements in the Bible show that the natural cycles of a woman’s body are seen as unclean and unholy; Women are seen as creatures that are unclean and unholy.

This negative view of the female sex continues in Leviticus chapter twelve, which dictates the regulations for a woman who has given birth. According to the scripture a woman who gives birth to a male child is unclean for forty days. If a woman gives birth to a female child she is unclean for eighty days. The ritual purification after childbirth is longer for the birth of a female child for no other reason than because the child is female. The female sex is so greatly detested that they are considered unclean in many of their natural functions. The regulations for purification are also more complex for women. While men can often become clean by washing with water, women require more stringent purification. In the case of childbirth the cost of cleanliness is the sacrifice of a lamb. If a lamb can not be obtained either two doves or two pigeons can be substituted as a sin offering and a burnt offering. The woman also requires the intervention of a priest to accomplish purification (Leviticus 12:6-7). These strict regulations bring women close to the status of unclean animals such as pigs and dogs. A man can become unclean by touching either a dead pig or a menstruating woman. The book of Leviticus clearly shows that women are considered unclean for their natural functions. For this reason women are restricted in their activities and in their right to partake in religious ceremonies. Women are not only inferior to men but they are also unclean most of the time.

A number of books in the Old Testament reveal that women are not only inferior to men but they are also of lesser value. In the final chapter of Leviticus Moses assigns a material value to human beings. For an adult male to dedicate himself to the Lord requires a donation of fifty sheckels of silver. The price is lower for a boy, twenty sheckels and for a male under five years old the donation is five sheckels. Women of all ages are of lesser worth. An adult woman is worth thirty sheckels of silver, a girl is worth only ten sheckels and a girl under five years old is only three sheckels (Leviticus 27:1-6). In every age group women are valued at nearly half of what men are. In the Census recorded in the book of Numbers women are so unimportant that they are not even listed. The Census only records the names of men who are older than twenty years old and are able to serve in the army (Numbers 1:3). This clearly reveals which members of society are most highly valued. Since God orders this Census, it also shows what people God considers valuable. In later lists boys as young as one month of age are recorded but still no women are named (Numbers 3:15). The Census is divided by family and clan groups but women are not recognized as being an important part of those groups. The book of Numbers also ensures that women are excluded from any inheritance (Numbers 27:8-11). Although women are not highly valued they are still someone’s property and are to be treated as such.

The Old Testament scripture has many laws laid down regarding the misuse of a man’s property. These laws are attributed to God and passed down through Moses and other prophets. Often these laws include specific references to women as property. In the book of Exodus a situation is described which involves an accidental injury of a pregnant woman while two men are fighting. If the woman or unborn baby is injured the men must pay a fine to the woman’s husband. If the injury causes death then the punishment is death (Exodus 21:22-25). Since the woman is the property of her husband and her fetus is also the property of her husband, it is the husband who has been injured; His property has been damaged and he has been deprived of a child. Similarly, if a man is discovered raping a virgin he must pay her father fifty sheckels, marry her and is forbidden to divorce her (Deuteronomy21:28-29). The woman has no choice in the matter and must submit to her father’s wishes. If a father wishes he is permitted to sell his daughter as a servant. Such a servant has some security. She should not be sent away by her master and she is always entitled to her marital rights no matter how many wives her master takes (Exodus 21:7-10). Again in this instance the woman has no choice; She must submit to her father and then to her master. This lack of choice can also be seen in the religious sanction for a man to marry a woman he has captured from his enemy. The scripture also gives the man the right to discard the woman if she does not please him (Deuteronomy 21:10-14). These laws clearly expose women’s position as property and their absolute lack of choice.

In the book of Judges a scenario is described that is unpleasantly similar to the story of Lot and his daughters in Genesis chapter nineteen. The book of Judges tells the story of a travelling Levite. The Levite travels a great distance to recover his concubine after she fled to her father’s home. During their travel homeward they stop in the town of Gibeah for a night of rest. An old man offers shelter to the Levite and his concubine. Just as in the story of Sodom the men of Gibeah gather around the house and demand that the stranger be turned over to them so that they may have sex with him. In this instance the virgin daughter of the old man is offered to the men but only the Levite’s concubine is turned over to the mob. The concubine seems valuable when the Levite traverses the country to recover her but her master’s low regard for her as a person is obvious when he loans her to the voracious men of Gibeah. When the Levite discovers the death of his concubine in the morning he realises that he has been deprived of his property. The woman appears expendable when she is sent out to the mob but her worth lays in her status as the property of her husband. As God’s law frequently states in the Old Testament the Benjamites of Gibeah now owe restitution to the Levite whose property they damaged. The Levite’s retaliation is harsh and includes a civil war and a declaration that the men of Israel will never give their women in marriage to a Benjamite (Judges 21:1). The Old Testament is full of stories and laws that sanction the gender stratification that keeps women in their subservient role.

The Gospels of Jesus bring a sudden change to the status of women. Jesus does not treat women as inferior creatures or as property, he treats them like people. Jesus is a Jew who claims to be placed on earth, as the Son of God, to offer all people redemption. His message is a revolutionary one because it radically changes the message traditionally attributed to God by the Jewish people. Previously, the almighty God favoured Jewish men as his chosen people. Jesus was making salvation, and God, available to all people, whether man or woman, Jew or gentile. Jesus overthrew hundreds of years of Jewish law and custom by consistently treating men and women equally. He not only treated women with respect but he also represented women as righteous people in his stories. Jesus presents himself as a powerful authority figure, second only to God and his message is to be accepted as the command of God. He uses this authority to spread the good news to men and women. The four gospels of Jesus, purportedly written by Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, are overflowing with examples of Christ’s fair treatment of women.

The gospels contain many examples of Jesus associating with women in blatant contradiction of established Jewish law. In the gospel of Mark a woman is cured of excessive menstrual bleeding by touching Jesus’ robe (Mark 5:25-34). He is not concerned that the touch of a menstruating woman will make him unclean. Jesus discards such laws of cleanliness when he says “Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye make clean the outside of the cup and of the platter, but within they are full of extortion and excess. Thou blind Pharisee, cleanse first that which is within the cup and platter, that the outside of them may be clean also” (Matthew 23:25-26). Jesus does not judge the bleeding woman because of her physical problem. Jesus appreciates the woman’s faithful heart and she receives healing because of her faith. She does not require the intervention of a priest or the sacrifice of a lamb as the laws of Leviticus once dictated. Jesus is showing that men and women are to be judged for their inner faith and not their adherence to rituals of cleanliness. It is more important to cultivate a pure and honest heart than be constantly concerned with ritual cleanliness. Jesus also associated with foreign women who would not be practicing the Jewish rituals of cleanliness. In chapter four of the gospel according to John a Samaritan woman even reminds Jesus that he is not supposed to speak to a foreign woman (John 4:9). Jesus not only speaks to this Samaritan woman but also preaches to her about the gift of God that is available to her and all people. God’s grace is made available to men and women alike.

Jesus shows that women are equal to men by accepting them as disciples and teaching them about God. Among his closest followers are the twelve male apostles and numerous unnamed female disciples. In the gospel of Luke a few female followers are named, such as Mary Magdalene, Joanna and Susanna (Luke 1:2-3). That particular scripture also states that he had “many other” women supporting his ministry. He is also shown to teach women directly such as Mary the sister of Martha (Luke 10:38-42). Jesus praises Mary for her attention and devotion to God. At the time of Jesus’ crucifixion many women are reported to have followed him up to Golgotha; This is described in Matthew 27:55-56 and Mark 15:40-41. According to these gospel accounts his male followers fled, with the exception of John (John 19:25-27). After his death and resurrection he appeared first to a woman, Mary, and then to other disciples (Matthew 28:9-10). He often used language that suggested equality and included women in many of his stories.

Many of the stories told about Jesus and by Jesus include both men and women. In the beginning of the gospel of Luke a story is told about Jesus being presented at the temple as a baby. His parents followed all the appropriate regulations laid out in Leviticus before travelling to the temple. While at the temple two people, a man and a woman, recognize Jesus as the Christ. First is the righteous man Simeon and second is the old prophetess Anna (Luke 2:25-38). Through the numerous stories told it is obvious that Jesus was known as a healer of both men and women. As previously mentioned he healed a woman that had suffered from bleeding for twelve years. He also healed Simon’s mother-in-law (Luke 4:38), resurrected a dead girl (Matthew 9:23-26) and also healed numerous people suffering from leprosy, paralysis and possession. Jesus is welcoming to women who are physically ill or spiritually weak. When visiting the home of the Pharisee Simon, Jesus allows a woman to anoint his feet with perfume. The men assembled criticize him because the woman has led a sinful life. Jesus raises this woman above the assembled men when he recognises her faith and gratitude. Jesus absolves her of her sins but does not offer any such absolution to the religious men.

Although the gospels of the New Testament present women as equals in the new kingdom of God, the epistles of the New Testament gradually reduce women to their prior position of subservience. The authority behind these rules is supposed to be the same God but now the messengers are the leaders of the early church, such as Peter and Paul. Their letters are sent to numerous churches around the known world. These are the men who followed Jesus but their message is very different. In Paul’s letter to the Romans he does make several statements that suggest women of equal status to men. Paul refers to Phoebe as a deaconess of the church in Cenchrea (Romans 16:1). Paul also refers to two outstanding apostles, a man Andronicus, and a woman, Lunia (Romans 16:7). In both of these passages the translation is sometimes changed to call Phoebe a servant and to refer to Lunia as a man. This shows that in some places women are still represented as equals but the overriding message is primarily one of dominion over women.

In some instances the epistles directly contradict some of the gospel stories. As previously mentioned female followers were present at Jesus’ death and were the first to see him following his resurrection. In 1 Corinthians Paul reports that Christ appeared first to Peter, then to the twelve apostles and finally to five hundred “brothers” at the same time (1 Corinthians 15:5-6). This retelling of the divine event totally excludes women. Not only are they no longer the first witnesses to the miracle of resurrection but they are also excluded from the later appearances of the risen Christ. Paul makes several other comments that reinstate the inferiority of women within religious doctrine. He says “Let your women keep silence in the churches: for it is not permitted unto them to speak; but they are commanded to be under obedience, as also saith the law” (1 Corinthians 14:34). He suggests that if a woman desires to know anything she should ask her husband at home rather than speak while at church. He is returning to the regulations of the Law before the coming of Jesus. Paul calls them the weaker sex and states that they should not teach men. In his letter to Timothy Paul calls for women to dress modestly and to" Let the woman learn in silence with all subjection” (1 Timothy 2:11). He frequently uses words such as subjection to emphasize women’s position beneath their husband or father’s authority. Besides these letters attributed to Paul there are others attributed to Peter that have the same type of message.

Peter is often viewed as one of Jesus’ most important apostles. This gives credibility to any message that is said to be from him. Like Paul he wrote letters to the followers of the growing Christian Church. The first epistle of Peter is addressed to a number of Christian fellowships across the region. The third chapter of this letter is devoted to regulating women’s submissive position. In the second chapter Peter says that all earthly masters should be obeyed because it is God’s will that they be masters over the people. The third chapter focuses this commandment specifically to the husband as master. He says “Likewise, ye wives, be in subjection to your own husbands” (1 Peter 3:1). The chapter goes on to instruct women to be pure, reverent and modest in dress. He encourages women to be submissive like Sarah was to her husband Abraham, whom she called lord. “For after this manner in the old time the holy women also, who trusted in God, adorned themselves, being in subjection unto their own husbands” (1 Peter 3:5) Peter is calling for a complete reversal in the role of women. He wants women to be in the same position that the Old Testament put them in. Both Paul and Peter support the submissive position of women as sanctioned by the Old Testament.

Throughout this comparison it has been shown that although different roles for women are presented in the Old and New Testament they all call on the same God as the authority for their commandments. This clearly shows that it is people and not God who constructs these gender characteristics and roles. By dividing the Bible into three parts (The Old Testament, the Gospels of Jesus, and the New Testament Epistles) it is possible to see that the representation of women is not static. Instead this study shows that different messages about women and their position in society can be found in the Holy Bible. A close study of the Holy Bible can provide insight into how the Judeo-Christian tradition has influenced modern conceptions of gender. The study also shows that these conceptions are not fixed but change over time.

Works Cited

Holy Bible. King James Version. London: Thomas Nelson Publishing, 1977

“Strong’s Hebrew and Greek Dictionaries” E-Sword Computer Software V 7.6.1.
Franklin: Equipping Ministry Foundation, 2005